Access for All

Introduction

Digital technologies are increasingly a central part of people’s lives, reshaping the way we live, work, and play and creating new opportunities for social and economic development. Businesses are, in turn, using information and communication technologies (ICTs) to fundamentally transform their processes, increase efficiency, develop new products, and enhance their customers’ experience. However, the shift towards an increasingly digital economy can widen the digital divide further between those able to benefit from the digital transformation and those that are not – either because they are in socially and economically disadvantaged sectors of the population or in areas without access to digital technologies, services, and opportunities.

Universal and meaningful connectivity (UMC), the ability of every individual to have a safe, enriching, and productive online experience at an affordable price, is critical for everyone, everywhere to realize the full benefits deriving from digital transformation. Universal access (UA) to connectivity is also a fundamental lifeline during emergency situations, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, providing access to basic commercial and public services, as well as enabling communication with friends and family, telework, and access to health care and education. Accordingly, and consistent with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 9c, effective UA policies must enable access to affordable and good quality broadband services, and facilitate digital inclusion, including developing digital skills, access for women and people with disabilities, and availability of relevant content and applications (United Nations 2015, 9c).

ITU’s 2025 reports on the state of digital development and regional trends presented observations related to UMC and UA over the past two decades. These include:

• The Africa region has the lowest Internet usage rate of all regions, having remained below the global average during the last two decades (ITU 2025a). Africa also has the largest gender gap in Internet usage. While mobile Internet subscription levels lag behind the global average, there has been steady growth. However, fixed broadband is nearly non-existent in the region.
• In the Americas, the percentage of individuals using the Internet more than doubled, remaining significantly higher than the global average, though there is wide variation within the region (ITU 2025b). The region leads the world in mobile broadband penetration, while fixed broadband penetration varies widely.
• In the Arab States, Internet use has approximately mirrored global trends, moving from slightly lagging behind the global average to slightly exceeding the global average (ITU 2025c). While mobile broadband subscriptions in the region have steadily grown, fixed broadband subscriptions have been variable and are well below the global average.
• In the Asia-Pacific region, Internet use has remained comparable to the global average, slowly increasing to nearly converge with the global figure (ITU 2025d). Similarly, mobile and fixed broadband subscription rates have remained close to global averages, exceeding global figures in recent years. In each of these measures, however, there is a wide range of variation among countries in the region.
• In the CIS region, Internet adoption has neared universal levels including among both men and women (ITU 2025e). The region’s mobile broadband and fixed broadband subscription rates have exceeded the global averages since more than a decade, although there is wide variation among the countries in the region.
• In Europe, Internet use is nearly universal and has consistently outpaced the global average, with use nearly equal among men and women (ITU 2025f). Mobile broadband subscriptions have exceeded the global average, though growth has slowed in recent years after exceeding 100 per cent. Fixed broadband subscriptions have approximately doubled the global average over the past two decades, making the region the world’s fixed broadband subscription front-runner.

Following an increase in the number of Internet users from 53 per cent of the global population in 2019 to 68 per cent in 2024, the number of worldwide users has continued to grow. This growth includes notable increases in Africa and the Asia-Pacific region, as well as within the least developed countries (LDCs).

Even though approximately 98 per cent of the global population lives within range of a mobile cellular network, more than 30 per cent of the world population still does not use the Internet. Those who remain unconnected face multiple barriers, including a lack of access: approximately 160 million people are still not covered by a mobile broadband signal (ITU 2023a).

Prices remain prohibitive in many parts of the world.  In 2024, for the data-only mobile-broadband basket, 138 of the 208 economies for which ITU collects data met the 2 percent GNI per capita target set by the Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development, one third did not. The situation was most difficult in LDCs, in 2024, only 7 of 45 LDCs met the 2 per cent target for mobile broadband. For the more costly fixed broadband basket, of the 194 economies for which data are available, only 78 economies – or 40 per cent – met the 2 per cent target. For 32 economies, the cost exceeded 10 per cent (ITU2025g).

This chapter discusses key challenges and policies to achieve UMC objectives within the context of digital transformation. The discussion focuses on three pillars:

• connectivity, which addresses challenges associated with funding broadband infrastructure expansion;
• pricing, which deals with affordability barriers to the take-up of digital services and end-user devices; and
• inclusion, which covers policies to develop digital skills, improve gender disparities and accessibility for people with disabilities (PWDs), and promote the creation of local digital content.

In addition, this chapter is supplemented by an article addressing the need to incorporate monitoring and evaluation of UMC and UA policies to ensure data-driven decision-making and promptly identify and correct regulatory failures.^[1]

Challenges to achieving universal and meaningful digital connectivity

Private investment plays a leading role in expanding access to broadband and digital services in developing countries, particularly leveraging mobile, satellite, and other innovative wireless technologies. Regulators and policy-makers are responsible for implementing policies that promote investment and leverage new technologies and business models (see Box 3.1).

However, market forces alone are unable to commercially extend broadband and digital services to certain areas (e.g., remote rural areas) or groups (e.g., those with low income). UMC policies are required to address these gaps. This section summarizes the key challenges faced by policy-makers to promote UMC. In developing countries, which face financial, socio-economic and educational constraints, national digital strategies must focus on a multisector, collaborative approach to tackle the UMC challenges of access, affordability, skills, and take-up.

Box 3.1. Evolution of universal access and service policies and perspectives

Addressing the “digital divide,” defined as “the gap between those who have access to and use Internet connectivity, digital literacy skills and Internet-enabled devices and those who do not” (United Nations 2021), requires tailored policies and strategies that can resolve the challenges shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1. Key UMC challenges facing developing countries

Policies to promote UMC

UMC and UA policies cover not only connectivity but also measures to ensure adoption, use and inclusion. The means by which governments, the private sector, non-governmental organizations, and international bodies can effectively and collaboratively achieve these goals directly relate to variables such as population density, income, geographical features, political and economic characteristics, and available resources, among others. Countries have followed different approaches to close access gaps, taking each of these factors into account.

Funding and financing mechanisms to achieve UMC goals are the key challenges to ensure the availability of broadband and digital services. Traditionally, governments have used universal access and service funds (UASFs) as the funding mechanism of last resort to achieve UA goals. However, because of funding, operational, and other challenges, alternative funding sources and strategies have emerged. Taken together, these approaches can be leveraged to ensure UA and UMC policies are better suited to offer connectivity, adequate infrastructure, affordability, digital skills, and the inclusion of traditionally marginalized groups.

The main funding options for meeting UA goals are:

• UASFs,
• additional funding and financing strategies,
• supplementary direct government funding, or joint public and private funding,
• effective regulatory measures, and
• “pay or play” policies.

These options are further addressed in the following article: Financing universal access to digital technologies and services and the Universal Service Financing Efficiency Toolkit.

UASFs are funding mechanisms established by national governments to promote UA to telecommunication services. They provide financial incentives to telecommunication service operators to provide service in locations that would otherwise not be commercially viable (UN ESCAP 2017, 10). Traditionally, governments have allocated service-specific subsidies (e.g., for fixed telephony payphone services). However, approaches have evolved to allow service-neutral competition (e.g., fixed or mobile), as well as technology-neutral competition for UASF subsidies. UASFs are used to support ICT/broadband programmes, including access to PCs and other digital devices, broadband Internet connections, and localized content and services. Further, the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) notes that UASFs are a valuable resource that can be used to fund programmes to assist people with disabilities (PWDs) in the Caribbean, a view that is equally valid for other disadvantaged populations and in other regions (Bleeker 2019). Similarly, in emergency situations such as during the COVID-19 pandemic, UASFs were noted as a means to, in the short term, finance temporary network capacity relief, and to keep networks running and operational (Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development 2020).

Generally, telecommunications service providers contribute to UASFs through levies based on a percentage of their annual operating revenues (ITU 2013). However, operational and management features vary by country. In many cases, funding also derives from licensing fees, full or partial proceeds from spectrum auctions, direct contributions from government budgets, contributions from international agencies such as the World Bank, regional development banks, and so on. (ITU 2013).

The shift in focus from voice services to broadband connectivity, as well as the promotion of affordability and inclusion, has been crucial for advancing connectivity in many countries. However, this has required legal and regulatory changes to give UASFs the flexibility to support initiatives and programs for implementing various broadband strategies.

Box 3.3. Effective UASF example

Note: See Universal Service Fund, http://www.usf.org.pk/.

Box 3.4. The role of content and application providers

Policies to make broadband and digital services affordable

Despite significant advances over the past decade to promote competitive markets, in many countries prices remain above the Broadband Commission’s affordability target threshold, that is, entry-level broadband data priced at or below 2 per cent monthly GNI per capita (Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development 2019a) In some countries, lower per capita income levels combined with low population densities may require public sector or joint public-private support to ensure high network deployment and device costs do not result in unaffordable Internet access.

The cost of ICT access has continued to decrease in recent years, continuing to progress toward the Broadband Commission’s affordability goal. The global median for both mobile-broadband baskets including at least 2 GB data was below the 2 per cent target. The most expensive mobile basket – mobile data and voice high-consumption – fell below the target for the first time in 2024. In contrast, the global median of the fixed-broadband basket price stood at 2.5 per cent (ITU2025). Affordability is already a barrier to connectivity in lower-middle-income countries, where only the entry-level mobile basket (1.5 per cent) was below the target, while the other four baskets ranged from 2 to 6.4 per cent. In low-income countries, mobile basket costs ranged from 6.2 per cent (mobile cellular low-usage) to 13.3 per cent (mobile data and voice high-consumption). At 29.2 per cent, the fixed-broadband basket is totally unaffordable to most people (ITU2025g).

Targeted policies, subsidies, and payment plans are often used to increase the affordability of digital services and end-user devices for vulnerable populations. For example, national policies can be leveraged to foster local innovation and research and development for Internet-enabled devices such as handsets, as well as prioritize support through government investment agencies for ventures (between local and foreign firms or PPPs) that seek to offer low-cost devices to the market (Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development 2019a). Similarly, mobile operators are developing payment plans to facilitate the acquisition of smart devices by lower-income consumers. In Kenya, Safaricom has introduced multiple programmes to improve affordability, including the Lipa Mdogo Mdogo programme, which allows customers to finance a 4G device through daily payments (Safaricom 2020). By September 2023, the company reported that more than 1 million users used the programme to upgrade from 2G feature phones (Safaricom 2023). Earlier efforts, such as the Maisha Ni Digital Campaign, sought to provide access to entry-level smartphones and close gender gaps, as Kenyan women were 34 per cent less likely than men to use the mobile Internet in 2019 (Safaricom 2019; GSMA 2020).

Box 3.4. Different approaches to public Wi-Fi network deployment

Note: WiFi4EU – Free Wi-Fi for Europeans, https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/wifi4eu-free-wi-fi-europeans.

Promoting public Internet access points, where Internet access is provided free of charge or at low cost, is also a policy pursued by many countries to offer affordable service for some of the most vulnerable individuals or groups. These include digital access centres in schools, libraries, post offices, and public Wi-Fi networks that ensure privacy and security. Designing policies for sustainable community telecentres, offering free or low-cost use of computers, broadband connections, e-services, and digital skills training expand broadband and target affordability challenges (see Box 3.4).

Another key incentivizing policy lever to foster UMC is decreased taxes and sector-specific fees. Governments must balance the need to raise revenue with the negative impact of higher fees and taxes, that is, decreased broadband adoption and usage, on the economy as a whole and on the process of digital transformation. For instance, a 2022 European Union (EU) Council Directive permitted Member States to apply a reduced value added tax (VAT) rate to Internet access services. The decision was intended to support Internet coverage expansion in Member States and was based on “significant discrepancies in digital development” across the EU (Council of the EU 2022).

Additional information on addressing affordability challenges is presented in the article on Access and Affordability.

Policies to promote inclusion

UA policies have evolved to extend beyond the ICT sector itself, more broadly including cross-sectoral approaches that can leverage ICT benefits across multiple economic segments. This is perhaps most clearly demonstrated by the idea of developing digital skills. The economy-wide benefits of digital skills development justify a focus on their incorporation into educational settings. These efforts, which sometimes fall under the umbrella of an educational policy or joint education and communications initiative, are crucial to training students at an early age on how to leverage the capabilities of broadband and technology.

The European Commission has adopted a Digital Education Action Plan 2021-2027 that has two priorities and 14 action items to support high-quality, inclusive, and accessible digital education in Europe, The priorities focus on “fostering the development of a high-performing digital education ecosystem” and “enhancing digital skills and competences for the digital transformation” (European Commission 2020). The 14 action items are organized in line with these priorities and include highlighting enabling factors for digital education, creating digital transformation plans, and designing ethical guidelines on the use of AI and data in teaching and learning. The fourth action item includes specific mentions of connectivity and digital equipment, stating the European Commission’s support for “gigabit and 5G connectivity for smart communities, where socio-economic drivers such as schools are located.”

Such education and training is not limited to the primary or secondary school settings. The intermediate and advanced skills identified above are candidates for more specialized vocational and professional development training settings. In the United Kingdom, the Department for Science, Innovation & Technology and the Department for Digital, Culture, Media & Sport collaborated on a policy paper that describes a series of measures to promote digital skill development and digital inclusion (Government of the United Kingdom 2023). The paper outlines measures to promote cooperation between academia and the private sector in an effort to strengthen the technological skills of British workers. One of these efforts – the digital degree apprenticeship program – allows students to obtain a technical degree while also completing a paid apprenticeship at a partner company. The program is developed in collaboration with industry to ensure that apprentices “achieve full occupational competence” upon the competition of the apprenticeship and degree. Continued digital skills training is also presented in various countries in the form of boot camps and other focused skills-building environments for professionals.

Ensuring that the potential benefits of ICTs – rather than just access to a broadband connection – can be leveraged across multiple sectors magnifies their impact and should be a key component of a modern UA policy or programme and may be considered in cooperation with ministries or government agencies.

Beyond digital skills, additional policies to promote inclusion include the promotion of local content and content industries and policies to address the gender gap and to ensure access for persons with disabilities (PWDs). Digital skills, local content, and gender inclusion and accessibility policies are discussed further in the article on Policies to promote inclusion.

Box 3.5 Regulatory incentives to foster access, adoption and use

Key findings

Considering the issues reviewed in the preceding sections, the following key findings may be informative for policy-makers and other stakeholders.

Focus on reliable, affordable broadband and devices. As policy-makers develop or revise UA policies, the availability of reliable, affordable broadband is increasingly taking a central role. This connectivity is comprised of, and enabled by, international and backbone connections, backhaul connectivity, and last-mile connections. This foundation enables connectivity that, in turn, promotes broader socio-economic development. Affordability is a core issue, necessitating innovative approaches and business models, particularly for access to devices.

Emphasize connectivity that is universal and meaningful. Policymakers should consider both the universality and the utility of broadband connectivity when developing and revising UMC policies and plans. To be transformative, digital connectivity must be accessible to all at a level that enables satisfying, enriching, and productive online activity.

Improve UASF effectiveness. The past and current challenges faced by UASFs and the populations intended to benefit from their projects indicate a need to review and, if necessary, reform the scope, processes, and effectiveness of such funds. These challenges need to be resolved to make UASFs more efficient and better positioned to be able to deliver universal connectivity.

Diversified funding sources and alternative approaches. Policy-makers and stakeholders are considering a wide range of traditional and alternative approaches to funding projects to better reach UA goals. As discussed, this can include fiscal measures and regulations intended to reduce risk, UASFs and new funding approaches that leverage private funding or expertise, or which combine public and private sources, as well as regulatory streamlining.

Skills development and locally relevant content enable and drive broadband adoption. In addition to addressing connectivity, UA plans are expanding to include components intended to encourage the availability of relevant content, including strengthening the digital skills that enable users to take advantage of connectivity and to effectively work in an increasingly digital economy.

UMC policies and UASF-supported projects can leverage various collaborative approaches. The development and governance of UA policies and related projects can benefit from participation by stakeholders including government, regulators, operators, technology providers, and target populations. Policies and projects designed with direct input from stakeholders and supervised in a manner that takes such input into account may both better meet needs and more efficiently identify potential challenges.

Inclusion and accessibility are increasingly built into UA plans. Beyond connectivity and broad socio-economic goals, UA plans are increasingly incorporating measures to ensure that connectivity and its benefits reach populations that have traditionally been excluded, such as women and PWDs.

Monitoring and evaluation continue to play important roles. UA policy impacts are dependent on effective and efficient implementation. Thus, UA policies continue to require structured monitoring and evaluation mechanisms intended to ensure that policy, programme, and investment goals are met.

Consideration of these key findings may help policy-makers and stakeholders consider the questions and issues that will inform their UA policy evaluation and development.

Endnotes

1. For a more detailed examination of the topics covered in this chapter, see relevant articles in this thematic section. ↑
2. COVID-19 Crisis: Broadband Commission Agenda for Action for Faster and Better Recovery, available here. ↑

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